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The humanistic perspective views human nature as basically "good," It emphasizes present conscious processes-paying less attention to' unconscious processes and past causes-and places strong emphasis on each person's inherent "capacity for responsible self-direction. Humanistic psychologists think that much of the empirical research designed to investigate causal factors is too simplistic to uncover the complexities of human behavior. Thus the humanistic perspective tends to be as much a statement of values-how we ought to view the human condition-as it is an attempt to account for human behavior, at least among persons beset by personal problems. Psychotherapists who adhere to the humanistic - perspective focus-on free people from disabling assumptions and attitudes so that they can live fuller lives. Its emphasis is thus on growth and self-actualization rather than on curing diseases or alleviating disorders. 

The humanistic approach emerged as a major perspective in psychology during the 1950s and 1960s when many middle-class Americans began to feel materially affluent and spiritually empty. It is optimistically concerned with an individual's future rather than his- or her past. This perspective is also concerned with processes about which we have as yet little scientific information love, hope, creativity, values, meaning, personal growth, and self-fulfillment. Although not readily subject to empirical investigation, certain underlying themes and principles of humanistic psychology can be identified. Two of these are described here. 

The Self as a Unifying Theme 

Carl Rogers

Humanists of the 1950s and 1960s focused their perspective on the concept of self. Among humanistic psychologists, Carl Rogers (1902-1987) developed the most systematic formulation of the self-concept, based largely on his pioneering research into the nature of the psycho-therapeutic process. 

Rogers (1951, 1959) stated his views in a series of propositions that may be summarized as follows: 

• Each individual exists in a private world of experience of which the I, me, or myself is the center. 
• The most basic striving of an individual is toward the maintenance, enhancement, and actualization of the self. 
• An individual reacts to situations in terms of the way he or she perceives them, in ways consistent with his or her self-concept and view of the world. 
• A perceived threat to the self is followed by a defense-including a tightening of perception and behavior and the introduction of self-defense mechanisms. 
• An individual's inner tendencies are toward health and wholeness; under normal conditions, a person behaves in rational and constructive ways and chooses pathways toward personal growth and self-actualization. 

In using the concept of self as a unifying theme, humanistic psychologists emphasize the importance of individuality. In studying human nature, psychologists are thus faced with the dual task of describing the uniqueness of each person and identifying the characteristics that all people share.' 

A Focus on Values and Personal Growth: 

Humanistic psychologists emphasize values and the process of choice in guiding behavior and achieving meaningful and fulfilling lives. They consider it crucial that each of us develop' values based on our own experiences and evaluations rather than blindly accepting the values of others; otherwise, we deny our own experiences and lose- (ouch with our feelings. To evaluate and choose for ourselves requires a clear Sense of our own identity-the discovery of who we are, what sort of person we want to become, and why. Only in this way can we become self-actualizing, meaning that we are achieving our full potential. According to the humanistic view, psychopathology is essentially the blocking or distortion of personal growth and the natural tendency toward physical and mental health. Such blocking or distortion is generally the result of one or more of these causal factors: 

1. The exaggerated use of ego-defense mechanisms-that reave an individual increasingly out of touch with reality 
2. Unfavorable social conditions and faulty learning .
3. Excessive stress. 

Source: Mujey's

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The Humanistic Approach

The humanistic perspective views human nature as basically "good," It emphasizes present conscious processes-paying less attention to' unconscious processes and past causes-and places strong emphasis on each person's inherent "capacity for responsible self-direction. Humanistic psychologists think that much of the empirical research designed to investigate causal factors is too simplistic to uncover the complexities of human behavior. Thus the humanistic perspective tends to be as much a statement of values-how we ought to view the human condition-as it is an attempt to account for human behavior, at least among persons beset by personal problems. Psychotherapists who adhere to the humanistic - perspective focus-on free people from disabling assumptions and attitudes so that they can live fuller lives. Its emphasis is thus on growth and self-actualization rather than on curing diseases or alleviating disorders. 

The humanistic approach emerged as a major perspective in psychology during the 1950s and 1960s when many middle-class Americans began to feel materially affluent and spiritually empty. It is optimistically concerned with an individual's future rather than his- or her past. This perspective is also concerned with processes about which we have as yet little scientific information love, hope, creativity, values, meaning, personal growth, and self-fulfillment. Although not readily subject to empirical investigation, certain underlying themes and principles of humanistic psychology can be identified. Two of these are described here. 

The Self as a Unifying Theme 

Carl Rogers

Humanists of the 1950s and 1960s focused their perspective on the concept of self. Among humanistic psychologists, Carl Rogers (1902-1987) developed the most systematic formulation of the self-concept, based largely on his pioneering research into the nature of the psycho-therapeutic process. 

Rogers (1951, 1959) stated his views in a series of propositions that may be summarized as follows: 

• Each individual exists in a private world of experience of which the I, me, or myself is the center. 
• The most basic striving of an individual is toward the maintenance, enhancement, and actualization of the self. 
• An individual reacts to situations in terms of the way he or she perceives them, in ways consistent with his or her self-concept and view of the world. 
• A perceived threat to the self is followed by a defense-including a tightening of perception and behavior and the introduction of self-defense mechanisms. 
• An individual's inner tendencies are toward health and wholeness; under normal conditions, a person behaves in rational and constructive ways and chooses pathways toward personal growth and self-actualization. 

In using the concept of self as a unifying theme, humanistic psychologists emphasize the importance of individuality. In studying human nature, psychologists are thus faced with the dual task of describing the uniqueness of each person and identifying the characteristics that all people share.' 

A Focus on Values and Personal Growth: 

Humanistic psychologists emphasize values and the process of choice in guiding behavior and achieving meaningful and fulfilling lives. They consider it crucial that each of us develop' values based on our own experiences and evaluations rather than blindly accepting the values of others; otherwise, we deny our own experiences and lose- (ouch with our feelings. To evaluate and choose for ourselves requires a clear Sense of our own identity-the discovery of who we are, what sort of person we want to become, and why. Only in this way can we become self-actualizing, meaning that we are achieving our full potential. According to the humanistic view, psychopathology is essentially the blocking or distortion of personal growth and the natural tendency toward physical and mental health. Such blocking or distortion is generally the result of one or more of these causal factors: 

1. The exaggerated use of ego-defense mechanisms-that reave an individual increasingly out of touch with reality 
2. Unfavorable social conditions and faulty learning .
3. Excessive stress. 

. 

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Definition of Normality and Abnormality

One of the most difficult and challenges faced by those in the field of abnormal psychology is to defined abnormal behavior. Consequently, abnormality is usually determined based on the presence of several characteristics of statistical infrequency, violation of norms personal distress, disability or dysfunction, and unexpectedness.

1) Statistical Infrequency:-

The normal curve or bell shaped curve, places majority of people in the middle as far as any characteristic is concerned and a very few people fall at center extremes. According to this curve a person is normal when he does not deviate much from the average in a particular trait or behavior pattern.

2) Violation of norms:-

Another characteristic to consider when determining abnormality is whether the behavior violate social norms or threatens or makes anxious to those observing it. For example:- Anti social behavior of a psychopath.

An obsessive- compulsive person’s complex rituals.

A psychotic patient’s conversation with imaginary voices.

However violation of norms explicitly makes abnormality a relative concept because various forms of unusual behavior can be tolerated depending upon the prevailing cultural norms. Example:- criminal and prostitutes violate social norms but are not studied within the domain of abnormal psychology.

Whereas a highly anxious person who does not violates any social norm but this behavior is bothersome to people who watch him.

3) Personal Distress:

Another characteristic of some forms of abnormality is personal suffering i.e .behavior is abnormal if it creates great distress in the person who is experiencing it.

Example:- people experiencing anxiety disorder and depression truly suffer greatly.

However some disorders do not involve distress. Example:- a psychopath treats other cold heartedly and may continue to violate the law without experiencing any guilt, remorse or anxiety.

4) Disability or Dysfunction:

Disability i.e. whether the individual is impaired in some important area of life. ( Example:- work or personal relationships ) because of the abnormality, it can also be component of abnormal behavior.

Example:- 

• Substance abuse disorder ( i.e., poor work performance, serious arguments with spouse causes distress.

• A phobia causes both distress and disability.

5) Unexpectedness:

Not all distress and disability falls into the domain of abnormal psychology. There are considered abnormal only when they are unexpected response to environmental stress. Example:- An anxiety disorder is diagnosed when the anxiety is unexpected and its level is out of proportion to the situation. 

Though all these key characteristic to define abnormal behavior does not yield satisfactory definition but together they offer a useful framework for beginning to define abnormality.

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Clinical Psychology Syllabus for Fifth Semester

PSYCHOLOGY SEMESTER - V

PAPER - V: CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY (COMPULSORY)

Unit - I: 

a) Introduction to clinical psychology.
b) Definitions of normality and abnormally
c) Models of abnormality.

1) Psychoanalytical
2) Behavioral
3) Cognitive
4) Humanistic (with evaluations)

Unit - II:

a) System of classification: DSM and ICD.
b) Causes of abnormal behavior.

1) Biological.
2) Psychological.
3) Socio cultural causes.

c) Anxiety. (Meaning and Symptoms in brief).
d) Dissociative Disorder (Meaning and Symptoms in brief )

Unit - III: 

a) Mood disorders –( meaning, types, symptoms).
b) Personality disorders (Meaning, types and symptoms).
c) All disorders in BRIEF.

Unit - IV:

Clinical assessment:
a) Clinical interview.
b) Behavioral assessment.
c) Psychological testing.
d) Neuropsychological testing.
e) Psycho physiological assessment.

Unit - V:

a) Therapeutic approaches: Biological - ECT, Drug and Psychosurgery.
b) Psychological: Psychotherapy (Freud's approach).
c) Behavior therapy.

1) Systematic deseastization.
2) Aversion.
3) Token Economy.

d) Cognitive Therapy.

1) CBT.
2) REBT.

References:

I. Barlow & Durand (1995). Abnormal psychology Brooks/Cole Publishing company, New
York.
2. Sarason, IG., & Sarason, B.R., (1996). Abnormal psychology the problem of maladaptive behaviors. Prentice Hall of India Pvt Ltd. New Delhi
3. Davison, o.c., & Neale,(2001) J.M., Abnormal Psychology.
4. Natraj, P. Manoroga Manovijnana, Srinivasa publications, Mysore

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Abnormal Brain Networks Found In Fragile X Syndrome.

The genetic malady known as Fragile X syndrome is the most common cause of inherited autism and intellectual disability. Brain scientists know the gene defect that causes the syndrome and understand the damage it does in misshaping the brain's synapses - the connections between neurons. But how this abnormal shaping of synapses translates into abnormal behavior is unclear.

Now, researchers at UCLA believe they know. Using a mouse model of Fragile X syndrome (FXS), they recorded the activity of networks of neurons in a living mouse brain while the animal was awake and asleep. They found that during both sleep and quiet wakefulness, these neuronal networks showed too much activity, firing too often and in sync, much more than a normal brain.

This neuronal excitability, the researchers said, may be the basis for symptoms in children with FXS, which can include disrupted sleep, seizures or learning disabilities. The findings may lead to treatments that could quiet the excessive activity and allow for more normal behavior.

The study results are published in the journal Nature Neuroscience.

According to the National Fragile X Foundation, approximately one in every 3,600 to 4,000 males has the disorder, as does one in 4,000 to 6,000 females. FXS is caused by a mutation in the gene FMR1, which encodes the fragile X mental retardation protein, or FMRP. That protein is believed to be important for the formation and regulation of synapses. Mice that lack the FMR1 gene - and therefore lack the FMRP protein - show some of the same symptoms of human FXS, including seizures, impaired sleep, abnormal social relationships and learning defects.

"We wanted to find the link between the abnormal structure of synapses in the FXS mouse and the behavioral abnormalities at the level of brain circuits. That had not been previously established," said senior author Dr. Carlos Portera-Cailliau, an associate professor in the departments of neurology and neurobiology at UCLA. “So we tested the signaling between different neurons in Fragile X mice and indeed found there was abnormally high firing of action potentials - the signals between neurons - and also abnormally high synchrony - that is, too many neurons fired together. That's a feature that is common in early brain development, but not in the adult."

"In essence, this point to a relative immaturity of brain circuits in FXS," added Tiago Gonçalves, a former postdoctoral researcher in Portera-Cailliau's laboratory and the first author of the study.

The researchers used two-photon calcium imaging and patch-clamp electrophysiology - two sophisticated technologies that allowed them to record the signals from individual brain cells. Abnormally high firing and network synchrony, said Portera-Cailliau, is evidence of the fact that neuronal circuits are overexcitable in FXS.

"That likely leads to aberrant brain function or impairments in the normal computations of the brain," he said. "For example, high synchrony could lead to seizures; more neurons firing together could cause entire portions of the brain to fire synchronously, which is the basis of seizures."

And epilepsy, Portera-Cailliau said, is seen in up to 20 percent of children with FXS. High firing rates could also impair the ability of the brain to decode sensory stimuli by causing an overwhelming response to even simple sensory stimuli; this could lead to autism and the withdrawal from social interactions, he noted.

"Interestingly, we found that the high firing and synchrony were especially apparent at times when the animals were asleep," said Portera-Cailliau. "This is curious because a prominent symptom of FXS is disrupted sleep and frequent awakenings."

And, he noted, since sleep is important for encoding memories and consolidating learning, this hyper excitability of brain networks in FXS may interfere with the process of laying down new memories, and perhaps explain the learning disability in children with FXS.

"Because brain scientists know a lot about the factors that regulate neuronal excitability, including inhibitory neurons, they can now try to use a variety of strategies to dampen neuronal excitation," he said. "Hopefully, this may be helpful to treat symptoms of FXS."

The next step, said Portera-Cailliau, is to explore whether Fragile X mice indeed exhibit exaggerated responses to sensory stimuli.

"An overwhelming reaction to a slight sound or caress, or hyper arousal to sensory stimuli, could be common to different types of autism and not just FXS," he said. "If hyper excitability is the brain-network basis for these symptoms, then reducing neuronal excitability with certain drugs that modulate inhibition could be of therapeutic value in these devastating neurodevelopmental disorders."

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Maldivian Economy

In 1992 the fishing industry employed about 22 percent of the labor force, making it the largest single source of employment in Maldives. However, a high level of disguised unemployment existed on a seasonal basis as a result of climatic conditions.

Despite its importance as a source of government revenues, tourism provides little meaningful employment opportunities to Maldivians. Tourism accounts for only about 6 percent of the country's labor force. Because most Maldivians have no education beyond primary school, most lack the required knowledge of foreign languages to cater to foreign tourists. As a result, non-Maldivians filled most of the best jobs in the tourist industry. Indigenous employment on the resort islands was also discouraged by the government's efforts to limit contact between Maldivians and Westerners to prevent adverse influence on local Islamic mores. Also, the low season for tourists, the time for rainy monsoons from late April to late October, coincides with the low season for the fishing industry.

After fishing, the largest source of employment is in the industrial sector, including mining, manufacturing, power, and construction. Although this sector also accounted for nearly 22 percent of the labor force in 1990, most employment was in traditional small-scale cottage industries. Women are mainly employed in these activities, such as coir rope making from coconut husks, cad Jan or thatch-weaving from dried coconut palm leaves, and mat weaving from indigenous reeds. The ancient task of cowrie-shell collecting for export is another occupation in which only women participate. In the early 1990s, a small number of modern industries were operating, mostly fish canning and garment making. The largest garment factories are Hong Kongowned and occupy abandoned hangars and other maintenance buildings at the former British air station on Gan. They employ about 1,500 local women who are bused in and about 500 young Sri Lankan women who reside at the site working night shift.

Other forms of employment in 1990 were minor. Government administration accounts for about 7 percent of workers; transportation and communications, 5 percent; trade, 3 percent; and mining of coral, 1 percent.

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